A couple of notes to add some points on the lines of Jerry Weir's original question especially in relation to the history of UK versus North American framing techniques.As Paul Denney and Ben Beers note, both Europeans and North American native peoples have been using timber for building for thousands of years and what is interesting is the particular methods, techniques and detailing that are unique to a particular area and time. The fantastic cedar structures of the Pacific Northwest and the great medieval frames of Europe are good examples. The characteristics of a type of building develop initially as a response to materials, tools, climatic, social and economic factors but once they have been found to be effective they endure because they form a successful building system until those factors change drastically. Here in the UK, Richard Harris (author of "Discovering Timber Frames", great little book on UK frames) follows the language analogy in describing a set of "grammatical" characteristics which describe a British carpenter's accepted language, often followed unquestioningly, just like the grammar of our everyday speech, which was basic to the way in which the carpenter went about building. Thus although English timber frames often have very different forms through time which often followed regional boundaries the grammar remained stable throughout much of the history of British framing. For example one of the defining set of characteristics for British frames Richard identifies is the tie beam lap dovetail assembly- the tie beam dovetails into the top of the wall plate and a jowl post beneath frames into both. There are several other points which make up the set. So how long has the timber framing set of languages (using pegged mortice and tenons for construction been about? In the UK, archeology shows that the Romans were building along these lines but then the Saxons, Vikings and Normans came along and none of them did. Instead their wooden building techniques were based on axe and wedge producing hewn and cleft material. Axe cut laps and notches were the key joints and posts were usually earthfast. Recent archeology digging up waterlogged timber structures buried in London mud has discovered that mortice and tenon carpentry only arrives in Britain as of about 1180 after the Norman conquerors have turned into the Plantagenet establishment. As yet no one really knows why which is very intriguing. The key things are probably increased European stability thus trade thus excess wealth to do stuff like gothic architecture, contacts with the Mediterranean where timber framing was perhaps still in use and developing from Roman times, and Arab worlds with their geometry and, who knows, probably scribe carpentry. Anyhow timber framing utilising hewn and, especially, rip sawn squared timbers almost certainly arrived from France where gothic architecture was being invented during the 1100's. Timber frames were raised off the ground on masonry walls and piers for increased durability. These elaborate structures used drawbored M&T joints and pegged laps. This form of carpentry arrived in England changed to adapt to local conditions and then endured right through until the 1800's. Europeans brought their various forms of scribe carpentry to North America and these too adapted again to climate and big trees and mixed to become local carpentry types. Expansion brought demand for barns and houses that could be built quickly and so square rule evolved to simplify timber framing, allowing simple template production of identical braces and studs. As you can work on one stick at a time rather than the full scale 2-D frame layups of scribe its good for small shops and snowy winters. One other big difference between many North American frames and UK ones is the assembly. In England, frames were typically put up piece by piece by a team of professional carpenters who had framed it and knew how the numbered, scribed frame went together. Because of the tie beam lap dovetail jointing the walls were erected first. Only A-shaped cruck crossframes were probably reared preassembled in the way that NA bents were. There was certainly a raising celebration and ale for the carpenters in Britain but not the "Witness" style raisings of NA. In NA, the square rule frames might require only one or two professional carpenters for layout with others to cut the frame and quite often the whole local community to raise them. Again the interchangeability of secondary parts eased raisings. As Rudy Christian says under Timberframe Design: Square Rule Design industrialisation started producing well milled, straight, square timber and square rule gave way to what he calls "mill rule". Soon enough of course there was regularised timber, abundant nails and thus balloon and platform stud framing. (And now CNC framing is changing things again). Back in Britain scribe carpentry gave way more slowly to simple carpentry based on metal connectors and milled timber. Among some of us it's given way to occasional hewing, pitsawing and the joy of real scribe.When it comes down to it of course carpenters are in the same boat wherever they are, its all about using good references to get your cut lines in the right place. [This message has been edited by Bill Keir (edited 05-10-99).]

[This message has been edited by Paul Price (edited 05-10-99).]